Sports and Academic Achievement Essay Example for Free

Sports and Academic Achievement EssayMany studies fuck off been done regarding the coercive impact that mutation has on a schoolchilds life. Studies view looked at the physical impact that acrobatics has on a schoolchilds life like sportsmanship, healthy lifestyle, discipline, strategy, and time management. We will be looking at studies that have explored the impact that sport has on students academician abilities. Academic victor can be measured in many ways but we will explore variant point averages, math and side test scores, and beginning conquest rates to show the positive impact athletics has on a students academic abilities. IntroductionParticipating in athletics offers students the opportunity to learn valuable lessons they can use for the rest of their lives. Some lessons include teamwork, self-esteem, perseverance, discipline, time management, and healthy living. However, these lessons be not the only lessons a student learns. Students also learn lessons th at pay over into the classroom and have a positive impact on academic effect. These lessons include increased retention, diligence, time management, and memory capacity which can be supported by scientist that have researched the impact of physical activity on the brain. These studies have concluded that exercise causes neurogenesis, the process of developing cells in the brain therefore, increasing memory and learning capacities (Blaydes, 2011). The National Federation of State gamy School Associations in their 2008, The Case for High School Activities hold shows that the return on investment on athletic programs and other extracurricular activities is very graduate(prenominal).Look moreessay on perseveranceAt a cost of only one to three percent (or less in many cases) of an overall schools budget, high school activity programs are one of the best bargins around. It is in these vital programs sports, music, speech, drama, debate where young people learn lifelong lessons as that compliment the academic lessons taught in the classroom (p. 1) Students who put down in athletics will experience greater academic success than students who do not figure in athletics. Using various research studies I will support this hypothesis by detailing the correlations between academic achievement and athletic participation. Students who participate in athletics have high fall guy point averages (grade point average), higher math and English scores, and obtain higher levels of graduation rates and continue on to higher education.Grade Point Averages of athletes vs. non-athletesOne of the measurements of academic success is grade point averages. High grade point averages indicate ones diligence, perseverance and desire to succeed. Students who participate in athletics have higher GPAs than students who do not participate in athletics. The 2002 study conducted by Schaben and Stevens of middle school students showed that students who participated in athletics had an average GPA of 3.15 compared to nonathletic students which carried an average GPA of 2.4 (p. 38). Another study of high school students by Stegman and Stephens (2000) found that both male and female students that had low athletic participation carried overturn GPAs.Male students in the 12th grade that did not participate in athletics carried an average GPA of 3.04 compared to 3.18 of male 12th graders that did participate. Female students in the 12th grade that did not participate in athletics carried an average GPA of 3.28 compared to 3.62 of female 12th grades that did participate (p. 3). Athletic participation directly impacts grade point averages of students that participate therefore, students who participate in athletics have more academic success than students who do not participate in athletics. Math and English scores of athletes vs. non-athletesHigh math scores indicate academic success because it shows a students ability for problem solving, logical thinking and calculat ions. High English scores indicate academic success in students by way of writing abilities and communication abilities. Students who participate in athletics have higher Math and English grades than students who do not participate in athletics. Students who participated in athletics were found to have an average final grade of 74.5 in Math and 74.6 in English.Students that did not participate in athletics were found to have an average final grade of 715 in Math and 70.3 in English (Zaugg, 1998, p. 68). A North Carolina High School study of students who participate in athletics found that students who did not participate in athletics had an average Math grade of 57.9 and 50.8 for English compared to those students who did participate that had an average Math grade of 66.1 and 61.4 in English (2001, NCHSAA Bulletin, p. 2). Studies have consistently shown that participation in athletics directly impacts a students scores in Math and English to be higher than students that do not parti cipate in athletics.Graduation Rates of athletes vs. non-athletesStudents who participate in athletics have higher graduation rates and continue on to higher learning more often than students who do not participate in athletics. This is an academic success indicator because the athletic student is graduation and continuing on in their academic success in college. The National cracker for training Statistics followed high school athletes 8 years after graduation and found that elite athletes and varsity athletes are more than 1.70 times more likely to have postsecondary education (2005, Carlson, Planty, Scott, and Thompson, p. 11). Male students who do not participate in athletics are 4% less likely to obtain a college degree than those males students who did participate in athletics. There was a similar correlation between female non-athletes and female athletes (2001, Caudill and Long, p.529). Athletic students have a higher graduation rate than non-athletic students and athletic students continue on to higher education more often than non-athletic students.Objection of higher academic success in athletesOne objection to the impact that athletics has on academics success is a study showing that non-athletes have higher ACT/SAT scores. In the 1997 Chronicle of Education article by Jim Naughton, students that did not participate in athletics had higher ACT scores (average 21+) than students who did participate in athletics (average of 19) (p. A44). In the study of high school seniors in Eastern Tennessee (2010, Gorman, p. 80) recorded no significant difference in ACT scores between participating and non-participating students. This objection disputes the findings that athletes have more academic success than non-athletes.ConclusionAs the studies have shown, the impact of athletics isnt just physical. Interscholastic sports also promote life skills and lessons and enhance academic performance (Lumpkin Stokowski, 2011). Those lessons carry over in the classroo m and boost grade point averages, as well as the scores of Math and English. It has been found that athletic students have a higher frequency of graduation and continue on to higher education than non-athletic students. Students who participate in athletics have more academic success than students who do not participate in athletics.ReferencesBarber, B. L., Eccles, J. S. Stone, M. R. (2001). Whatever happened to the Jock, the Brain, and the Princess? Young adult pathways linked to adolescent activity involvement and social identity. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16, 429-455. doi 10.1177/0743558401165002 Blaydes, J. (2011, Fall). How to progress to learning a moving experience. Seen Magazine, 13(2), 78-79. Carlson, D., Planty, M., Scott, L., Thompson, J. (2005). Statistics in Brief What is the status of high school athletes 8 years after their senior year? (NCES 2005303). Retrieved from the National Center for Education Statistics website http//nces.ed.gov/surveys/nels88/ Caudi ll, S. B. Long, J. E. (1991, August). The impact of participation in intercollegiate athletics on income and graduation. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 73(3), 525-531. Gorman, D. A. (2010). The effect of athletic participation on academic achievement for high school seniors in Eastern Tennessee (Doctorial dissertation). Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA. Lumpkin, A. Stokowski, S. (2011, Spring). Interscholastic sports A character-building privilege. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(3), 124-8. National Federation of State High School Associations. (2008). The case for high school activities. (NFHS Report). Retrieved from Oregon School Activities Association website www.osaa.org/osaainfo/08CaseForHSActivities.pdf Naughton, J. (1997). Athletes on top-ranked teams lack grades and test scores of other students. Chronicle of Higher Education, 43(46), 43-44. Schaben, L. A. Stephens, L. J. (2000, February). The effect of interscholastic sports participationon academic achievements of m iddle level school students. NASSP Bulletin, 86(34), 34-41. doi 10.1177/019263650208663005 Stegman, M. Stephens, L. J. (2000). Athletics and academics are they compatible? High School Magazine, 7(6), 36-9. Unknown. (2001, Fall). High school athletes outperform nonathletes again by wide margins in massive statewide academic study. North Carolina High School Athletic Association Bulletin, 54(1), 2. Zaugg, H. (1998). Academic comparison of athletes and non-athletes in a homespun high school. NASSP Bulletin, 82, 63-72. doi 10.1177/019263659808259910

Stages of Life Cycle Development Essay Example for Free

Stages of Life Cycle Development EssayStages of Life Cycle Development Raytheon I believe that Raytheon is in the elaboration symbolize of life cycle development. The elaboration stage is described as mature stage of the life cycle in which red tape crisis is resolved finished the development of a new sense of teamwork and collaboration. Raytheon employs a process of Integrated Product Teams. IPTs are thinked on improving communication amongst team members. This social organisation creates an atmosphere where each employee is within close proximity and everyone knows what is being discussed at every stage in their area of responsibility. IPTs are broken down into quatern tiers that are integrated but independent with a customer support leader, production program leader, design design leader, and value stream leader that hang on things flowing smoothly. Through the use of IPT production teams managers develop the skills necessary for confronting problems and working togethe r. This in turn reduces the need for addition formal controls. Raytheon has achieved collaboration throughout the nerve by employing IPT teams.Raytheons leadership employs a Six Sigma business model and is routed within the acets of Raytheon management. This philosophy is embedded within the fabric of Raytheons business plan. It is used as a method for increase productivity, growing the business, and building a new culture. Raytheon Six Sigma is the continuous process improvement effort designed to reduce over every(prenominal) costs. organise and Control Raytheon is one of the largest military defense contractors in the world.The Raytheon Company designs develops manufactures integrates and supports technological products services and solutions for governmental and commercial ustomers in the United States and internationally. It is headquartered in Waltham, Massachu launchts and employs round 73,000 people. Raytheons leadership employs a business model know as Raytheon Six Sigma is the philosophy of Raytheon management, embedded within the fabric of our business organizations as the vehicle for increasing productivity, growing the business, and building a new culture.Raytheon Six Sigma is the continuous process improvement effort designed to reduce costs. (Raytheon 2008) Six Sigma was developed by a rocess of benchmarking other companies and leveraging internal best practices. The philosophy of Raytheon Six Sigma is to bring a goal of making customer success a strategic focus for the company increase productivity transform the culture and grow the business. Raytheons employs a business model known as OpenAir which enables all ot its partners to contribute and capture value.It succeeds in bringing together innovators in a range of fields including academia large and small businesses and Raytheon customers. Raytheons OpenAir fosters collaboration. One break aspect of the OpenAir oncept is competition because the opportunity exists for suppliers of all level s to get involved in the overall design and production effort collaboration and creativity increase. This in turn drives costs down and accelerates time to market place. As a result Raytheons customers receive best of breed and affordable solutions in a shorter span of time.The OpenAir business model will be a key enabler in Raytheon meeting or exceeding customer expectations. The conception will be used on all new captures which will allow Raytheon to bring through the most innovative products and affordable rices to different markets. The model can also be applied to existing programs driving Raytheon to higher levels of efficiency than ever before. (Raytheon 2007) The OpenAir concept unites diverse partners and encourages complementary efforts.For example a smaller supplier with an innovative technology may lack the infrastructure to bring the product to market. Under the guidelines set by the OpenAir model this same company can partner with a larger business that has the abil ity to integrate the new innovation and then market and sell the solution. Raytheon 2007) Raytheon also transformed its operating system from a traditional purchasing and supply chain organizations to an integrated supply chain.We intend to link our engineering groups and our performance excellence groups with our supplier base as early as we can in the process when building relationships with our suppliers. We need our suppliers to be an extension of ourselves. When dealings with our suppliers was focused on costs quality and schedule. (Bernstein 2005) Raytheon employs a process of Integrated Product Teams. IPTs are focused on mproving communication amongst team members and keeping them up to speed on their area of concern while also fostering a sense of responsibility for a given function or step.

Duopoly Coles vs Woolworths Essay Example for Free

Duopoly Coles vs Woolworths EssayFor nigh of us its just part of everyday life decisions. Where to sleuth for the week, Coles or Woolworths? Should I drink Pepsi or Coke today? Do I go to MYER or David J wizs to buy new make up from? We take on in consideration a few prices, how convenient it entrust be to get there, what would we rather do, and thats it. But theres something badger fundament this. What is the impact on such big rivals, for us and the economy? Its not just about personal choices. Living and studying in Australia for the knightly 11 months, going to do my grocery shopping at Coles or at Woolworths has become part of my routine. And because it is such an ordinary thing to do, we t depot to barricade that we make part of a much bigger picture, and are contribute to several factors regarding the Australian economy. However, this race for the best has its advantages and disadvantages, and of course, this is affecting us as well. The value WarOne of the adva ntages of this never ending participation for us customers, are the low prices. Because there is such a big competition for prices, each of the supermarket brands exit try to make it as affordable as possible to the consumer, as a reaction to get competitive advantage. One big example of this state of war is the milk price. Both supermarkets can sell milk for $1. It is very difficult to make any profit if youre selling products at such a low price, as Rob Murray, the chief executive for the food and beverage group Lion stated. However this issue does not affect us consumers on a day-to-day basis, and the low prices keep us happy and of course, keep us shopping at these big supermarkets. Everyone wins with the Rewards ProgramsAnother good thing for the shoppers at these two big chains is the rewards systems they take. And we win again. Despite the cheaper price war having been leaded by Coles the majority of quantify, Woolworths seems to withdraw another way of fighting. Their CEO present OBrien came out with a new strategy the Everyday Rewards. The more the customer shops, the more discount they get.Users of the cards get exclusive offers, discount on fuel and can even earn Qantas flyer points. And not only in Woolworths, they have retail partners like Big W, Dick Smith and Cellarmasters that will also benefit the customer. Coles also has their rewards system, the Flybuys. With this card, apart from the exclusive offers on Coles and affiliated riotouss products, the customer collects points at every purchase, which can later be changed by unalike prizes. But this is not only good for the consumers. Its basically the company saying that they will give us prizes, in exchange for our information. A Rewards system allows the firm to collect data about their customers, which they can use in their favour, to create loyalty and promote trust. With the Everyday Rewards, Woolworths has been able to collect a good aggregate of information, while Flybuys is c alm in the process of build its strength. Easy and SimpleAnother very good thing for the customer about these two big brands is the convenience. Everywhere we go, every big shopping center and busy area in a suburb will have at least one of the two, if not both. Coles and Woolworths have very strong analysts that will know where to place their shops, and if there is an area lacking one, its probably not because they are still to build one, but because that are would not be so profitable yet. So for us, wherever we want to shop, we can always find one of these, and do not have to travel any long distance to get to one of these stores, as they are located almost everywhere too. Even for the most loyal customer from the secondary shops, sometimes its a lot more convenient to visit one of the big supermarkets, and they will end up buying something from there. Someone competency be losingUnfortunately its not all flowers. For us to be paying such low prices, someone is losing currency somewhere, and its not the big supermarkets. Because they are such big brands, suppliers need to have their products in their shelf. Coles and Woolworths claim they have built very strong relationships with their suppliers, and it superpower be true, but a lot of the smaller suppliers are getting ripped off. They bully the suppliers to sell their products at really low prices, and they know they have this power, otherwise they wont sell comme il faut. They will also charge more to have theproducts placed in good positions on their shelves. A lot of the times the prices suppliers are charging are so small, that they are struggling to survive with these sales, and it generates another whole big problem. Creating EnemiesThe ones losing with the big duopoly from Coles and Woolworths are the smaller suppliers, and the smaller shops too. But not every customer is just happy in paying small prices, they want to make sure everyone involved is protected. For this reason, there is a big hug on ACCC from suppliers and the smaller businesses which dont have a chance to compete. There is a party called Australian Green, and they fight strong against the practices these two supermarkets have againg farmers and small suppliers. Their objective, as they state on the website, is to tackle the supermarket duopoly, and the measures they are willing to take are strong. For example, put a temporary ban on intricacy from Coles and Woolworths, or stopping this duopoly to purchase agricultural land, so they cant control the whole supply chain. The ACCC is also holding an investigation about the browbeat of suppliers. While most of us will not care that much about the situation these suppliers are in, or will not have excerpt to shop somewhere else, there is a big group who does care. These are customers who are willing to pay more, but do their groceries in a small shop so they can help that business, and also do not buy the products from exploited suppliers. No more competit ionUnfortunately, the group of very upset customers mentioned before is not large enough to make sure the small businesses will survive. With such low prices and big chains, the two major supermarkets will not give a chance for a smaller business to survive in the middle of this war. It is just impossible to compete with the two major supermarkets prices and their sinewy middlemen, and the small shops start disappearing. Without competition, a lot of the products that do not have space on Coles or Woolworths shelves may also disappear, and this will also have a big impact on the economy as there is unemployment rising. This process will damage Australia foods industry, and with the lack of new firms it might mean a lack of new products, and the whole market can go stale. Tricking thecustomersTo have products at such low prices, as it was mentioned before, the suppliers will end up losing. But the customers might also lose sometimes. For example, the withdraw range musket balls c ase. Both Coles and Woolworths claim that they want to help customers switch from industrialised to free range eggs, by cutting the prices on the second one. However, the suppliers pay for the price that we are not, as it is impossible to have a free range egg production at such low prices. The customer will end up buying free range eggs thinking they are contributing to improve the animal welfare standards from the supermarkets, however, they do not know that they are still purchasing the industrialised free range eggs, the free range displacement of these two big supermarkets.Even though it seems there are more disadvantages to small businesses and suppliers than there are advantages for us customers, it is not the number, but the quality of these advantages that count. This battle is far from the end, because it is not likely that the masses will stop shopping at Coles or Woolworths anytime soon. However, the ones that are more conscious about it can only expect that it will mak e a difference in the future, when the ACCC take strong measures or the political inaction ends, and someone who genuinely cares and is strong enough to change this is put in charge. In the meanwhile, we will keep enjoying the convenience to just walk for 10 minutes and find a shop, or accept rewards and discount on products and even fuel, and keep ignoring all the ones losing from this. In the end, it is a battle and someone will lose. If not the big duopolistic market, a part of the existence will pay.

The Errors Vs Mistakes English Language Essay

The Errors Vs Mis urinates English Language Essay match to Br ingest in order to analyze a learner oral communication, it is eventful to understand the distinction between hallucinations and mistakes. A mistake refers to a performance flaw that is either a random stab or a compositors case, seeing as a failure to workout a known form coverly. Mistakes female genitalia happen in both native and encourage phraseology be the pass of any(prenominal) sort of temporary breakdown, hesitations, slip of the tongue, random ungrammaticalities, or imperfection in the process of producing speech and bathroom be recognized and manufacture by native speakers. However wrongdoings be idiosyncrasies in the row of the learner. They ar actually deviation from adult grammar of a native speaker. It shows the competency of the learner. Then mistakes atomic occur 18 referred to performance demerits in which the learner knows the system further fails to use it while misunderstanding s ar the result of mavins systematic competency. It means that the learners system is inaccurate. fit to James cited by chocolate-brown (2007) the learner is non able to self turn down the fallacys while mistakes if called, merchant ship be corrected by the learner. Then error bailiwick can be used as a means for identification of errors and mistakes. However, Brown noteworthy that making a distinction between errors and mistakes is touchy because if no such(prenominal) error study occurs, we argon not able to distinguish those (2007).Keshavarz (2008, p.49) to a fault noted that thither is a distinction between errors and mistakes. Errors are rule governed, systematic in nature, suppressnally principled and free from arbitrariness. They show learners underlying knowledge of the fair game linguistic process that is his transitional competence. In contrast to errors, mistakes are random deviations and unrelated to any system. They are related to performance of the le arner and might occur in the speech and writing deal slip of the tongue, slip of the ear, slip of the pen, and false start. According to Keshavarz (2008) mistakes are due to non- lingual factors such as fatigue, strong feeling, keeping limitations, and lack of concentration and so on. These kinds of mistakes can be corrected by the learner if brought to his attention.He considered that distinguishing between learners errors and mistakes has al musical modes been problematic for teachers and researchers as Corder (1967) and Brown (1987) cited in keshavarz (2008) keep this problem too. Nevertheless most error psychoanalyst use a general criterion for distinguishing between errors and mistakes the frequency of occurrence that is errors which are low frequent are considered as mistakes or performance errors and those which are high frequent are systematic errors. However this criterion alone is not adequate for distinguishing between errors and mistakes because low frequency of cert ain error whitethorn due to the low frequency of grammatical patterns or avoidance dodging that a learner uses. Then error analyst should consider casual factors of learners aberrant structures as a means of distinguishing between errors and mistakes.According to Corder (1997) cited in Park (2010) errors refer to learners underlying knowledge of the language and mistakes refer to incorrect forms caused by memory lapses, slips of the tongue and other instances of performance errors. Corder considered that learners can correct their own mistakes but they cannot correct their errors because they do not pretend enough knowledge to distinguish their own vocalisation and that of the native speaker. He also pointed out two translations with regard to learner errors. First, the occurrence of errors is merely a sign of the present inadequacy of the statement techniques (p. 163). That is, if it were possible for teachers to achieve a perfect teaching method, there would be no occurrence of student errors in the target language. The flake explanation is that patronage teachers best efforts, the occurrence of errors is inevitable because errors occur for many reasons. The reasons can be arbitratence from L1, overgeneralization, an incomplete knowledge of the target language, the complexity of the target language, and fossilization. Therefore, teachers should be more than concerned with how to deal with students errors than the simple identification of them. For this study, I ordain use the terms errors and mistakes disguisechangeably because sometimes it is difficult to distinguish students errors from mistakes.Identification of Errors (Categories of Error)Corder (1971) cited by Brown (2007) take into accountd a position for identification of errors. Based on his mannikin any sentences uttered by the learner can be analyzed for idiosyncrasies. According to his vex there are two types of error overt and covert errors. Overtly incorrect utterances are ungramm atical at the sentence level and covertly incorrect utterances are grammatically correct at the sentence level but are not interpretable within the context of communication. Then overt errors are sentence level and covert errors are talk over level errors.Burt (1975) cited in Park (2010) categorized errors as global and topical anaesthetic ones. Global errors are errors that barricade communication and affect the overall organization of the sentence such as wrong word order, missing, wrong or misplaced sentence connectors however local errors do not commonly hinder communication and affect single elements in a sentence such as error in noun and verb inflections, articles, and auxiliaries. He mentioned that the field of global error clarifies the intended communicate more than the castigation of several local errors. Moreover he argued that teachers should correct high frequent errors first. From another(prenominal) perspective Chaudron (1977, p.32) cited by Park (2010) classi fied the range of errors from linguistic (phonological, morphological, syntactic) to subject matter content (factual and conceptual knowledge) and lexical items. Valdman( 1975) cited in (salim shahin) provided the same division as Burt and utter that in the case of global error the communication between the student and teacher will be blocked and the student requires rectification but in the case of local error, communication between the teacher and the student will not be blocked and it is up to the teacher to require the chastening of the error, or let the error passes.Hammerley( 1991) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) classified errors into surface and deep. According to him surface errors need minor corrections and explanations while deep errors require explanation of why the error was made and what the correct form is. Hendrickson (1978) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) divided errors into three main types. 1) errors that hinders communication 2) errors that have highly stigmatizin g effect on the attendant or reader but do not hinder communication 3) errors that can be described as lapses that students usually have in their utterances. These errors are quite common in the speakers utterances yet they hardly block communication between the speaker and his interlocutor.Mackey et al. (2000) cited by Park (2010) categorized four types of errors in their analysis of L2 interactional data as phonological, morphosyntactic, lexical, and semantic ones.1) Phonological errors were non-target like pronunciation 2) morphosyntactic errors were omitted plural-s and the preposition in 3) lexical errors were inappropriate lexical items 4) semantic errors were incorrect meaning or expression.Prabhu (1987) cited in (Salim shahin, 2003) divides errors on the basis of their treatment rather than their nature. According to his division there are two kinds of error systematic and incidental errors. Systematic errors are those that deviate from the native speakers form and the tea cher uses linguistic explanation, long interruptions, and exemplification to help and correct learners error. But Incidental errors do not require linguistic explanation or exemplification from the teacher, such as when the teacher corrects a pronunciation error or when he raises his eyebrows to draw the students attention to the error.Moreover Lennon (1991) cited by Brown (2007) identified dissimilar categories for description of errorsErrors of addition, omission, substitution, orderingLevel of errors phonology or orthography, lexicon, grammar and discourseGlobal and local errors an error that hinders communication or prevents hearer or reader from understanding some aspect of a message is global and an error that does not prevent a message from being understood, usually due to a minor violation of one segment of a sentence, allowing a hearer or a reader to make an accurate guess somewhat the intended meaning is a local error. (burtkiparsky, 1972 cited by Brown, 2007)Domain and extent error domain error is the rank of linguistic unit from phoneme to discourse that must be taken as context in order for the error to expire apparent. Extent error is the rank of linguistic unit that would have to be deleted, replaced, supplied, or recorded in order to indemnify the sentence.Other educators like Allwright (1975) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) believed that errors should be treated on the basis of their frequency, rather than on their classification. Then errors of high frequency should be given more attention and emphasis than errors of low frequency.Some Definitions in Error CorrectionThere are different terms when providing feedback in response to learner error in second language accomplishment. These are repair, treatment, feedback, negative leaven and correction. Brown (2007, p.388) delimitate repair as correction by the learner of an ill-formed utterance, either through self-initiated repair or in response to feedback. Chaudron (1988) cited in Dabaghi (2006) defined treatment as any teacher behavior that follows error and shows the error to the learner. Ellis (1994a) cited by (Dabaghi, 2006) also identified feedback as a general cover term in which listeners provide information on the reception and the comprehension of the messages.Lightbown and Spadal (1999) cited in Dabaghi (2006) defined corrective feedback as an indication to the learners that they use target language incorrectly. According to Ellis (1994a) cited by Dabaghi (2006) correction has a narrower meaning than these terms. It is any attempt to provide negative evidence in the form of feedback that draw learners attention to the errors they have made.As Schachter (1991) cited by Dabaghi (2006) said corrective feedback, negative evidence and negative feedback are terms that are respectively used in the field of language teaching, language science, and cognitive psychology. approximately of the researchers use these terms interchangeably. In the present research we u se error correction and corrective feedback interchangeably whenever the general sense of feedback provision was involve.Types of spoken error correctionAccording to Lyster Rantas model (1997) cited by Coskum (2010) the types of spoken error correction are as followsExplicit correction clearly indicating that the students utterance was incorrect, the teacher provides the correct form.S there is a little milk in fridge.T + in the fridgeRecast the teacher implicitly reformulates the students error, or provides the correction without straight off pointing out that the students utterance was incorrect. In other words it is the teachers reformulation of all or part of a students utterance, minus the error.S he like pop-music.T yes, he likes pop-musicClarification request the teacher indicates that the message has not been understood or that the students utterance included some kind of mistake and that a repeating or a reformulation is required by using phrases like Excuse me?S there a rent many /hotls/ in this town.T again? Metalinguistic clues the teacher poses questions like Do we say it like that? or provides comments or information related to the formation of the students utterance without providing the correct form. Metalinguistic clues contain comments, information or questions related to the salutary formedness of the students utterance, without explicitly providing the correct form. Metalinguistic comments generally indicate that there is an error somewhere. Metalinguistic information generally provides either some grammatical metalanguage that refers to the nature of the error or a word definition in the case of lexical errors. Metalinguistic questions also point to the nature of the error but attempt to elicit the information from the student.S there isnt any books.T + there isnt grnce uncountable, yani saylamayan bir ey kullanmamz gerekiyormu.Ds there isnt any moneyElicitation the teacher directly elicits the correct form from the student by asking qu estions (e.g. How do I ask somebody to clean the board?), by pausing to allow the student to complete the teachers utterance (e.g. He is a good ..) or by asking students to reformulate the utterance (e.g. Can you say that again?). Elicitation questions differ from questions that are defined as metalinguistic clues in that they require more than yes/no response. It refers to at least techniques that teachers use to directly elicit the correct form from the students. First teachers elicit extremity of their own utterance by strategically pausing to allow students to fill in the blank as it were. Second, teachers use questions to elicit correct forms. Such questions exclude the use of yes/no questions. The question likes Do we say that in English is metalinguistic feedback, not elicitation. Third teachers occasionally ask students to reformulate their utterance.S there are a few books in my /lbrari/T in my? Repetition the teacher repeats the students error and changes intonation to dr aw students attention to it.S How much money do you have in your /pakt/?T /pakt/? DS /pokt/T yesSources of ErrorAccording to Brown (2007, p.263) there are four sources of error1) Interlingual transfer it is a significant source of error for all learners. It is the effect of one language (usually the first) on another (usually the second). At early stages of learning a second language, the linguistic system of the native language is the only system that a learner is familiar with. Then the native linguistic system can interfere or transfer and cause some errors in second language.2) Intralingual transfer Another source of error which goes beyond the interlingual transfer is intralingual transfer. It is the effect of forms of one language (usually the target language) on other forms within the same language. According to Odlin (2003), Jaszczolt (1995) and Taylor (1975) cited by Brown (2007) once learners have begun to learn the system of second language, it is the system of second lan guage that cause error. In fact intralingual transfer that is generalization within the target language occurs.3) Context of learning The third source of error is context of learning which is called false concept by Richard (1971) and induced error by Stenson (1979) cited by Brown (2007). It overlaps two types of transfer and refers to classroom, materials and social situation that can lead learners to make faulty hypotheses about the language.4) Communication strategies The forth source of error is communication strategies. They are production strategies that learners use to enhance getting their message across, but these strategies can become a source of error.Moreover Corder (1975) cited by Keshavarz (2008, p101) rarified three types of sources of errorsInter lingual errors which are caused by first language interferenceIntralingual errors that are caused by the learners generalizing and over generalizing particular rules.Errors caused by faulty teaching techniques.Another class ification was considered by Dualy and Burt cited by Keshavarz (2008, p. 101) for second language learners error which are called goofsInterference-like goofs errors which show native language structure and are not found in first language acquisition data of the target language.L1-developmental goofs errors that do not reflect native language structure but are found in L1 acquisition data of the target languageAmbiguous goofs those errors that can be as either interference-like goofs or L1 developmental goof.Unique goofs errors that do not reflect L1 structure and also not found in L1 acquisition data of the target language.Significance of errorsMany scholars in the field of error analysis have stressed the significance of second language learners error. For example Corder (1967) cited by Keshavarz (2008) remarked that errors are significant in three ways First errors are significant to the teacher in that they help him to understand how much the learner has progressed and what be f or him to learn. Second errors provide evidence for the learner to recognize how language is learnt or acquired and what strategies and procedures are used by the learner to discover the language. Third errors are important to the learner himself in which they are a device the learner uses in order to learn.Moreover Richard (1971) cited by Keshavarz (2008, p.45) noted that errors are significant and of interest to 1) Linguistics, because accord to Chomsky the study of human language is the best way of understanding the human intelligence 2) Psychologists, because by comparing childrens and adults speech, they can examine the nature of the mental processes that be to be involved in language 3) Teachers, because by analyzing learners errors, they would be able to discover their difficulties and devise a method for comparing them.Besides, Jain (1974) cited by Keshavarz (2008) maintained 2 reasons for the significance of errorUnderstanding the process of second language acquisitionPla nning courses incorporating the psychology of second language learning.Other researchers like Dulay and Burt (1975) cited by Dabaghi (2006) stressed the significance of error by indicating two major reasons 1) error provides data from which interferences about the nature of the language learning processes can be made, and 2) it shows to the teachers and political platform developers in which part of the language, learners have difficulty with and which error types detract most from the learners ability to communicate efficaciously.Historical perspectives of error correctionRussel (2009) noted that error correction is a controversial issue in the field of second language education (SLE) and second language teacher education (SLTE). How to correct errors depends on the methodological perspectives of teachers.In behaviorist teaching models such as audio lingual method that was popular in 1950s and 1960s, error correction was stressed at all cost. Behaviorists believed that errors wer e inevitable but they tried to provide the correct form immediately. Brooks (1960, p.56) cited by Russull (2009) considered that like sin, error is to be avoided and its influence overcomes the best way to overcoming errors is to shorten the time lapse between the incorrect response and a presentation of correct form. However in 1970s the value of grammar precept and error correction in behaviorist model was questioned. Russull (2009) considered that in 1970s and 1980s some scholars claimed that error correction was not only unnecessary but also harmful to second language acquisition. The most well known model which was against error correction was Stephan Krashens monitor model which has five hypotheses about language learning. Rashtchi keshavarz (2007) noted that the learners affective and emotional status can act as filters which do not allow easy absorption of introduce. It means that affective filter will hinder the process of learning (p.76). Moreover they noted that accord ing to natural order hypothesis all linguistic elements and skills are learned in a predictable order and this order is not influenced by the native language of the learners.Russell (2009) mentioned that Terrell created the natural address which is a method that emphasizes the development of communicative competence. According to his approach affective rather than cognitive factors are primary concern in the language classroom and correction of learners error is negative in terms of motivation, situation and embarrassment. In this approach teacher never correct the learner oral errors. Then learners themselves should study grammatical structures in order to correct their mistakes.Communicative language teaching approach became popular in 1980s and like natural approach focuses on communicative competence and notional functional concepts over the instruction of grammatical structures. (Richards Rogers (1986) cited by Russell (2009). The objective in CLT is the development of fluenc y and acceptable language use and since emphasize is on meaning over form, error correction is not of primary importance. However when learners accuracy is assessed, it is always done in context. (Omaggio Hadley, 2001 cited by Russell), and in 1990s some researchers assert that explicit grammar instruction, error correction and focus on form could promote SLA. (Aljaafreh Lantolf, 1994 Doughy Varela, 1993 Ellis, 1993, 1994 Fotos, 1994 Long 1996 Schmidt, 1990, 1993, 1995 Sharwood Smith, 1993).Error correction and second language acquisitionAccording to Dabaghi (2006, p. 25) there are different views and opinions about language teaching and learning in which the changes in methodologies, materials and attitudes toward second language learning have always been important to language experts. Since error correction cannot be separated from these views and opinions, it must be discussed in terms of its relation to the theories of second language acquisition. In the following sections, we can see a number of second language acquisition theories and models that in some way affect our understanding of error correction.Contrastive analysis modelIn the era of uncongenial analysis and audiolingualism, there was a negative approach towards errors. According to Stern (1983) cited in Dabaghi (2006, p.25) some of the scholars during 1950s and 1960s had a puritanical perspective about errors committed by second language learners and as Brooks (1960) cited by (Dabaghi, 2006, p.25) said like sin, error is to avoid and its influence overcome but its straw man is to be expected.According to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982) cited by Dabaghi (2006), in contrastive analysis, there is a comparison between learners native and target language and these differences cause the majority of an second language learners errors. Based on behaviorist view which was prevalent at that time, learning is a process of habit formation and errors from first language habits interfere with the learners attempt to learn new linguistic behaviors. Then to avoid errors, teachers should prevent and correct errors and shorten the time lapse between the incorrect response and the correct model. But as Dabaghi (2006, p.26) said, paying too much attention to prevention of errors and teaching learners to use language creatively in response to expected and unexpected stimuli in the environment are the drawback of contrastive analysis model and structural approach and caused the very foundation of contrastive analysis as a result of Chomskys transformational generative grammar, which emphasized the active participation of the learners mind in processing data. In short, according to CA, learning is a process of habit formation and meddling language habits with learners attempts to learn new linguistic behaviors cause errors. Then the audio lingual approaches to teaching aimed to prevent learners from committing errors and believed that errors should be corrected immediately.Inter language mo delIn inter language era the second language learner was considered to be an autonomous creator of a language system who has a built-in-syllabus (Corder (1981) cited by Dabaghi (2006, p. 26)). It means that a learner is equipped with an internally programmed sequence which is sometimes in accordance with what teacher teaches and sometimes contradictory and learner follows his/her own course in syllabus. According to this view errors are the evidence of the learners present transitional competence and manifest the way the learner processes the stimulus in her linguistic environment.Dabaghi (2006, p.27) mentioned that the inter language view of language acquisition believed on the whole role of language learning to the language learner and weaken the impact of negative evidence in second language development. According to this view, if negative evidence is provided within the syllabus predetermined in the mind of language learners, it can be effective otherwise it causes frustration and confusion for the learner and teachers. This view was strengthened by non-interventionist view taken by Dulay and Burt (1973), Krashen (1983) and Prabhu(1987) cited by Dabaghi (2006) who argued that grammar instruction should be abandoned in order to let the learner acquire the language from untutored language setting. The teacher should only provide the learner with opportunities for natural use of language. To sum up, the inter language model considered second language learners as self governing creator of a language system who follow their own built in learning program which can sometimes benefit from error correction and sometimes not.Krashens Input Hypothesesit is commonly known that for the acquisition of a second language, enter that is provided either by a teacher or by another learner is essential. Corder (1967) cited by (Faqeih, 2012) distinguished input from intake. According to him, what is available to the learner is called input and what is actually internalized is called intake. According to Faqeih (2012) Krashen proposed the most influential theory of the role of input in second language acquisition in 1980. He noted that for the acquisition of second language, learners must be exposed to comprehensible meaningful input which contains linguistic data that are a little beyond learners knowledge (i+1) where i is the second language learners current linguistic competence and (i+1) is the next level of that competence achieved with comprehensible input ( Krashen, 1985 cited by Faqeih, 2012). He also suggested that production of the target does not directly aid acquisition. Krashen considered that learners can make use of three kinds of contextual information extra-linguistic information that is learners knowledge of the world and previously acquired linguistic competence the input that can be available via interaction and interaction in which meaning has to be negotiated e.g. when there is a communication problem.Krashen (1985) cited by (Faqe ih, 2012) also distinguished learning and acquisition. He considered that acquisition uses unconscious processes and those grammatical rules are not helpful. In other words, second language is acquired more like first language and parents focus on communication and meaning instead of focusing on explicit instruction of the language. He also implied that if input is understood and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically learnt. He also argued that error correction (= negative evidence) do not improve second language performance. On the other flip learning is the conscious process that involves the memorization of many formal grammatical rules and error correction can have a role in this. According to him learning leads to grammatical and mechanical knowledge of the language, but it does not lead to fluency. Note that although Krashen distinguished between learning and acquisition, but this thesis uses them interchangeably.According to Faqeih (2012) Krashens inp ut hypothesis is supported by some scholar such as Shwartz (1993) and Truscott (1996). They noted that for learners to acquire second language, only positive evidence that is a model from the target language is sufficient and negative feedback such as implicit and explicit feedback to any non target like feature in learners speech does not help learning and that structures learned through error correction cannot become part of internal grammar. They also proposed the negative effects of error correction such as confusing the learners, causing over use of a particular form or interfering with natural language acquisition processes. Others like Lightbown Spada 1993 cited by Faqeih (2012) said that excessive use of error correction lead to lower motivation. According to Krashens affective filter, classroom teachers should not focus intentionally or explicitly on errors of language from during class but should instead provide comprehensible input to learners.Other scholars such as Mitc hell Myles (2004) cited by Faqeih (2012) criticized this hypothesis because of lacking in empirical evidence and untreatable owing to its vagueness. Moreover White (1987) criticized Krashens input hypothesis for not considering the possible benefits of providing rules, said that certain types of errors may need rules instruction. Others like Ellis, Tanaka, Yamazaki (1994) cited by Faqeih 2012 considered that although interaction can put to work communication problems through negotiation and increased comprehension, it does not mean that increased comprehension automatically leads to L2 acquisition that is, learners may not necessarily retain the comprehended target language.Longs Interaction HypothesisBased on Krashens input Hypothesis in which input is important for acquisition to take place, Long suggested his own interaction hypothesis (Long, 1996, 2007 cited by Faqeih (2012)). He considered that input is not sufficient on its own for language learning to occur and some type o f negative evidence may be beneficial role in acquisition and more attention should be given to the interaction that learners are engaged in. In 1996 he updated his hypothesis and mentioned that some controversial strategies such as repetitions, confirmation checks, comprehension checks, clarification request or recasts can solve communication problems. This kind of interaction involved components like negotiation, recasts, and feedback. According to Long (2007) cited by Faqeih (2012) interactional feedback is very important aspect for language development because it helps learners become aware of their error, and notice the mismatches between their inter language and the target language. It also encourages learners to hypothesize the correct form and test them and modify their inter language. Long (2007) cited by Faqeih (2012, p.29) claimed that for error correction to be affective, simultaneous focus on form and meaning should be provided in a classroom context and the best strate gy for the negotiation for meaning is recast, Because it is implicit and does not interrupt the flow of interaction.Dabaghi ( 2006, p.28) mentioned that according to Long, when there is a conversation between two interlocutors ( native speakers and non native speaker) there are both similarities and differences in the form of grammatical complexity between them. They use some conversational tactics such as clarification request, repetition or comprehension checks. It shows that the non native speaker or less component interlocutor is experiencing comprehension problems and using these tactics is very useful in language learning. In the process of interactional adjustments, both interlocutors make effort to understand each other. It means that they adjust their input to make it more comprehensible that is i+1 in Krashens term. However this hypothesis was criticized by Braidi (1995

Carrolls Pyramid Of Corporate Social Responsibility Model Accounting Essay

Carrolls Pyramid Of bodily Social Responsibility Model Accounting EssayIn the past, the common wisdom of a business state was to maximize their firms reach. This is because businesses were perceived to always put the sh argonholder interests first. However, businesses ar moving towards impacting the sociables and environments. Several research have found that businesses at one time have direct responsibilities to various early(a) stakeholders which include preventing the harm of human rights and ensuring that there argon solutions available if abuses occur (Smith, Wokutch, Harrington, and Dennis, 2001).The modern view of business tariff demands companies to help in problems relating to public welf atomic number 18. As firms have no utmost righteousness for these unpleasant situations, philanthropic responsibilities are still not mandatory. However, due to a decrease of companionable institutions that provide help to the communities, people have higher expectations towards c ompany and believe that they should take cave in in filling up the shortages (Carroll, 1979). Carroll has proposed a CSR supposition, which states the organizations 4 business responsibilities (i) economic, (ii) Legal, (iii) honorable, and (iv) Discretionary (as shown in plat 1). These four components are complementary to each other (not mutu all toldy exclusive).Diagram 1 Carrolls Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility ModelSource Chaisurivirat, 2009. The Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility Exploring the Relationship among CSR, Attitude toward the Brand, Purchase Intention, and Persuasion Knowledge.The economic and legal responsibilities are the basic and essential element in a business. There are a few researches done to further enhance the importance of these elements (Jamali and Mirshak, 2006). Basically, economic responsibility is similar to the traditional view of a business role which is to maximize the firms profit for their shareowners. Carroll (1979) stated t hat business itself is an economic unit to the clubhouse. In addition, legal responsibility is where companies are required to obey the laws and laws set by the government or respected authorities.The conventional profit-maximizing view explored in Albert Carrs article Is Business Bluffing Ethical (Velentzas and Broni, 2010). Carr stated that making money out of a product is the businesses main role. Business is said to be like a poker game, whereby organization are to play within the set of rules of the game (Carr, 1968). Those who do not comply will not be successful in their business. The duty that they had towards employees and shareholders surpasses the other honourable obligation as long as it does not go against the law (Carr, 1968). at any rate that, Milton Friedmans in like manner explained that it is essential for a firm to maximize the revenues of a shareholder by overcoming all the environmental challenges (Cheers, 2011). Similarly, Friedman (1970) reemphasize that, There is one and only one social responsibility of business is to use its resources and engage in activities designed to growing its profit so long as it stays within the rule of the game. This can be further supported by a case of remit v. Ford Motor Company (Cheers, 2011). The Ford founder, Henry Ford aims to provide Ford vehicle for everyone by reducing the price. The shareholders were dissatisfied and claimed that the company should not stag a profit-reducing decision. Court held that firms are primarily to bring profit to the shareholders. The company should not exercise any choices which will bring disadvantage to the shareholders.However, nowadays, the perception of a business role has changed. The businesses concern should not include only the shareholders, but besides other parties or entities that would be affected by the organizations action, which refers to stakeholders (Fassin, 2008). Freeman (2012) define stakeholders as (i) people or institutions that are affecte d by the corporate action, practices and decisions and alike (ii) those who are related to the success of the corporation. Firms are expected to transform the profit maximization mindset to trusteeships or multifiduciary stakeholders concept, whereby the business role is now to achieve relaxation among the stakeholders interest by avoiding doing any harm to any individuals or groups (Goodpaster and Mathews, 1982).In addition, Carroll introduced the ethical and philanthropic responsibility. Carrolls ethical aspect refers to the federations perspective of a good behavior (Carroll, 1979). Corporation must comply with the rules and regulation set speckle operating. Moreover, it also includes the norms or expectations which are not written in law in other words, the moral value and rights (Carroll, 1991). Furthermore, firms are obligated to act voluntarily beyond their business scope and rational ethical acts. This is known as the philanthropic responsibility, such as organizing or p articipating in charity event (Carroll, 1979). Bowen (1953) mentioned that social and philanthropic responsibility would serve as a guideline for the business in the rising.Nowadays, most businesses believe that they should be more social responsible towards the society and environment and hence, criticisms arises over the traditional perspective. For example, some critics disagreed that business is a game, as it is a needed component in the society. Besides that, the competitions between different businesses are involuntary, which would involve and influence legion(predicate) other stakeholders, such as government and local communities (Kirkpatrick, 2002). Therefore, institutions are said to be accountable to the stakeholders. They need to pay defend to the society for what they have done and thus, provide reasonable explanation to the stakeholders.Accountability vs AccountingAccording to Blagescu, Casas, and Lloyd (2005), responsibility is the care fores through which an orga nization makes a commitment to suffice to and balance the needs of stakeholders in its decision-making processes and activities, and delivers against this commitment. As mentioned before, todays corporations also have responsibilities to other stakeholders, such as the society. Therefore, corporations have the obligation to be accountable to those stakeholders (Brennan and Solomon, 2008). An accountability framework, spheric Accountability Project (GAP) (as shown in diagram 2), was developed by One World Trust with a purpose of generating wider commitment to the values and principles of accountability among world(prenominal) organizations (Blagescu, et.al, 2005). In the case of pipefish, it can be seen that they have indeed put in efforts to increase their accountability to their stakeholders, especially in relation to social and environmental aspects.Diagram 2 Global Accountability Project (GAP) FrameworkSource Blagescu, Casas, and Lloyd (2005). Pathways to Accountability The G AP Framework.According to GAP framework, there are four dimensions that are crucial for increasing and evaluating accountability of organizations. First is the transparency. Transparency is that stakeholder can access to credible and timely information about the organizations operations (Blagescu, et.al, 2005). To be transparent, organizations must do more than simply disclose commonly criterionized information. In other words, it needs to provide more useful and needed information for the stakeholders for decision-making. Organizations should be centering on the quality of the information disclosed, instead of the quantity (Hassan and Marston, 2010). garfish disclosed important information for their stakeholders. For example, they announce that they will partner with TFT for forest conservation while building shareholders value (Golden Agri Resources Ltd, 2011b). The second dimension is participation. It means that the organizations allow those key stakeholders to be involved i n the decision-making process and activities which would influence them (Blagescu, et.al, 2005). saury does fulfill their accountability obligation in this dimension. They have been working hard to engage with their stakeholders, such as their customer, Nestle, in align to improve the performances (Harvey, 2011).Furthermore, evaluation is another essential part of organizations accountability. It involves the evaluation and monitoring of both end results and the ongoing progress of the organizations activities (Blagescu, et.al, 2005). This dimension plays two significant roles in accountability. It reports the performances against expectations after an event in order to put out crucial information to stakeholders it also increases accountability by learning and increasing organizational responsiveness to stakeholders (McKenna, 1983). In fact, GARs performances in relation to sustainability development are evaluated and monitored by few away independent organizations, such as Gr eenpeace (Harvey, 2011). Additionally, the dimension of complain and response mechanisms is for both organizations and stakeholders to seek and receive feedbacks from each other in order to increase accountability (Blagescu, et.al, 2005). For instance, GAR takes into account the responses of customers, such as Nestle (Harvey, 2011).Although the interpretations of accountability are very wide and are trammel only by imagination, accountability is always found to have links with the provision and receipt of monetary information in many history literatures (Narasimha Rao and Raghavendra, 2011). Due to the rapid humor change, undeniably, accounting and the environment are no longer mutually exclusive (Andrew, 2001). In fact, accounting had long been treated as just a technique used to provide financial information for stakeholders (Bushman and Smith, 2001). Normally, people will assume that all the accounting information is just financial. However, a modern accounting concept shoul d also include some green issues in order to increase organizations transparency (Andrew, 2001). Besides, accounting system can also help the stakeholders in evaluating the organizational performances as it could provide them with relevant information (Perrini and Tencati, 2006). It is not surprising that accounting can rattling be used to increase organizations accountability. Overall, increasing accountability is important for organizations, including GAR.GAR was required to increase their degree of accountability, especially to those external key stakeholders. This is because According to The Straits Times (2010), GAR had deforested lawlessly before in Indonesia. In order to cumulate the expectations of the stakeholders, GAR started to be committed in the conservation of forests and peatlands in Indonesia. There are two main actions taken by GAR to do so. Firstly, GAR has signed a forest-conservation agreement with TFT, a non-government organization (NGO). Also, GAR starts to d isclose their social and environmental performances in annual report (Golden Agri Resources Ltd, 2011b). GAR published their inaugural sustainability report in 2011, after their illegal deforestation activity was discovered to the society (The Straits Times, 2010). All these signs indicate that GAR is prow to the embrace from the NGOs and external stakeholders (Harvey, 2011). In fact, there are some conceptual theories which could provide an explanation for the sudden changes made by GAR.These organizational practices changes in GAR could be explained using Legitimacy Theory. This theory asserts that organizations seek to ensure that their activities and operations are perceived to be legitimate by the society and stakeholders (Deegan, 2011). Legitimate could be said as a social construct based on cultural norms for organizations behaviors (Suchman, 1995). Therefore, organizations have to be committed to the social contract between the companies and the society to gain recognition . Social contract could be roughly defined as the implicit and explicit expectations that the society has on the organizations (Deegan, 2011).In fact, failing to commit to the social contract would be perceived as not legitimate, and eventually will bring negative impacts to the companies, such as difficult to obtain resources and supports from the society to hide the operations. Thus, legitimacy is an important component for the organizations as it is considered as a precious intangible resource which organizations rely on in order to survive (ODonovan, 2002). Corporations could actually establish their legitimacy by information disclosures (Suchman, 1995). Through the disclosure of information in relation to social and environmental performance, the company would gain the societys trust. Consequently, it will be beneficial to the company in ways, such as improving companys reputation and establish competitive advantages (Porter and Kramer, 2006). As a result, GARs changes their organizational practice by scratch line the publication of sustainability report.Besides that, Stakeholder Theory could also be used to gain an understanding of why GAR responds to NGOs in this manner. One of the branches of Stakeholder Theory, ethical perspective, adopts a normative position that organizations should consider the rights and interest of all the stakeholders, regardless of their powers and influences on the company (Deegan, 2011). According to Freeman and Reed (1983), stakeholders are any parties that are affected by the organizations operations. Usually, organizations would try to meet the stakeholders expectations and be accountable to them by providing and disclosing organizational information (Gray, Kouhy, and Lavers, 1995). Therefore, it is believed that this might be one of the reasons why GAR alters their organizational practice.Undeniably, bowing to the pressure from stakeholders is a good start for GAR. Committing to CSR, disclosing social and environmenta l performance records, and world more accountable are indeed beneficial to GAR themselves and also their stakeholders. It is also important to note that accountability and transparency are one of the essential factors in enhancing the organizations sustainability development (Global Public constitution Institute, 2005). Sustainability development is generally defined as to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).Golden-Agri Resources Ltd (GAR)s Sustainability ReportCurrently, there is no any legal law or regulation states that organizations have to disclose their social and environmental aspects. However, voluntary disclosures would bring favorable impacts to both internal and external stakeholders. Therefore, many corporations start making voluntary disclosures, so does GAR (Cheynel, 2012). In fact, GAR published their inaugural sustainability report for a purpose of providing the stakeholders a weaken understanding of the companys priorities, performances, and stakeholder engagement process (Golden Agri Resources Ltd, 2011b). GARs sustainability reports standard was assessed at masking level B, based on an internationally established reporting framework (shown in diagram 3) developed by Global Reporting first step (GRI) (Golden Agri Resources Ltd, 2011c). This framework was designed to provide organizations with a set of principles for defining report matter and ensuring the quality of the inform information (Global Reporting Initiative, 2000).Diagram 3 Global Reporting Iniative (GRI) FrameworkSource Global Reporting Initiative, Sustainability Reporting Guidelines (https//www.globalreporting.org/resourcelibrary/G3.1-Sustainability-Reporting-Guidelines.pdf)Diagram 4 Global Reportive Initiative (GRI) Principles for ReportingSource Institut fur Wirtschaftsinformatik, GRI Principles (http//www.iwi.uni-hannover.de/upload/lv/sosem10/ Seminar_SS_2010/SS10/Seminararbeit/torres/www/measuring2.html)According to the GRIs framework, there are 4 principles (Materiality, Stakeholder Inclusiveness, Sustainability Context, and Completeness) (shown in diagram 4) for defining the report content (Global Reporting Initiative, 2000). The materiality principle requires corporations to address the most important and concerning issues to their stakeholders. The major catamenia concerning issue for GAR and their stakeholders is deforestation in Indonesia (Harvey, 2011). This is because GAR had cleared the forests illegally before in Indonesia, as mentioned before. In addition, this deforestation act is destroying the livelihood of the habitat there. The stakeholders, such as Indonesia government, local communities, and even those NGOs are therefore present their concerns on this issue badly (Harvey, 2011). In GARs sustainability report, it focused on disclosing information about policies of preventing deforestation. For example, they state that they would have a no-deforestation footprint in Indonesian rain forest by partnering with NGO, TFT to launch Forest Conservation Policy (FCP) (Golden Agri Resources Ltd, 2011b). Overall, it is believed that the report content is fairly material. Furthermore, GARs sustainability report does fulfill the principle of stakeholder inclusiveness. One of the main disclosures is their multi-stakeholder engagement process (Golden Agri Resources Ltd, 2011b). For examples, engaging NGOs, customers, and local communities to address the interests those stakeholders have in order to achieve their expectations and sustainability development.Moreover, the underlying question of a sustainability report is how organizations plan to contribute in the future to improve economic, environmental, and social developments at both local and global level (Global Reporting Initiative, 2000). This is related to the principle of sustainability context. The report discloses that GAR is committed to a holistic approach towards sustainability, as it is always looking at methods to increase productivity while reducing negative impacts on its land. One of its sustainability policies, Yield Improvement Policy (YIP), is focused on plantation management and land suitability (Global Reporting Initiative, 2000). This shows that GARs voluntary disclosures do meet the requirement of sustainability context. Besides that, the information GAR discloses includes all significant actions or events within the reporting period which fulfills the principle of completeness. However, it can be seen in the report that data and statistics regarding to environment and sustainability performances are insufficient. Furthermore, there is limited alignment between the sustainability report and overall business strategy. Lack of all these information could affect the completeness of the report (KPMG, 2008).Apart from the content aspect, the quality of the sustainability report is also an important elem ent. Balance, comparability, timeliness, accuracy, and reliability are the 5 principles used to test the report quality (shown in diagram 4). GARs report does not really meet the balance principle as they mostly disclose favorable aspects of the organizations performance while there is lack of unfavorable results and topics. This could affect stakeholders assessment and decision making adversely. Besides that, the comparability principle is irrelevant to the report as this is the inaugural sustainability report for GAR. Therefore, it cannot be used by the stakeholders to compare with its past performance (Global Reporting Initiative, 2000). other than these, the report does meet the accuracy and reliability principle. Qualitative statements in the report are valid only if it is based on the basis of other describe information and evidences (Global Reporting Initiative, 2000). GAR does provide other evidences and information to increase the accuracy and reliability of their reports . Overall, GARs sustainability report is believed to have met the reporting standard requirements set by GRI. Nevertheless, the quality of the report can be improved through the compliance of accounting standards.Accounting StandardsAccounting standards (AS) are defined as a polity set by authorities such as accounting body, government or regulatory body to regulate the accounting transactions in the financial statement (The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, 2011). As globalization emerges, the business world realizes the importance of having a common standard in the financial aspect. A look back conducted by the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) shows that majority of the leaders from accounting fields support the idea of having common international standards as part of economic gain (Private Company Financial Report, 2008). Thus, the International Accounting Standard Board (IASB) developed the International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) (Cellucci, 2011).IFRS aims to serve as a regulation for financial reporting which can be exercised equally throughout the world (Ball, 2006). One of the advantages of IFRS is that it provides a principle-based framework with better quality. In addition, there are lesser regulation and exception as compared to the other standards such as General Accepted Accounting Principle. By adopting IFRS, a more professional judgment is being introduced which helps to reduce the risk faced by the company. There is also more transparency in the economic transactions (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2007).However, the Security and Exchange Commission (SEC) states that the standards in IFRS are highly inadequate compare to some accounting standards (Cellucci, 2011). For instance, the General Accepted Accounting Principle (GAAP) is considered to be the gold standard in US (Private Company Financial Report, 2008). The Staffs interpretation of GAAP includes some disclosures of environmental issues on contingent liabilit ies. This is to recognize the contingent losses and to acknowledge the different accounting practices and disclosure on contingent liability (Roberts, 1995). However, IASB reported that environmental issues reporting are not within the scope of IFRS (Yara C, Nelson, and Bruna, 2008). Thus, it shows that IFRS are still not compatible with other standards like GAAP in the social and environment accounting aspect (Center for Audit Quality, 2009).Besides that, there are several studies which reported that there are limitations in the role of accounting standards. This includes ensuring the reporting quality as well as the emphasis on the firms incentive in reporting (Ball, Kothari, and Robin, 1998 Ball, Robin, and Joanna, 2002 Leuz, 2003 Ball and Shivakumar, 2004). The application of the accounting standards involves significant judgments and usage of private data. Thus, substantial discretion is provided by any accounting standards to a firm. However, the quality of how the firm behave s depends on the incentive in reporting, such as the market forces and legal institutions (Daske, Hail, Leuz, and Verdi, 2008). The institutions have the right to choose the information that they want to disclose. Hence, an accounting standard for better sustainable development should meet the needs of the users by encouraging feedbacks and comments.Similarly to other accounting standards, IFRS do not record all the effect of economic action (SIGMA, 2003). For instance, externalities, such as the termss and benefit which do not affect the organization directly, are not include in the financial reports. Costs and benefit should be included to provide a better market-based decision making (SIGMA, 2003). For example, the emission of petrol will cause climate changes and air pollution. These consequences are considered as the original cost to the society in the present and future. However, these costs are not reflected in the fuel price. Positive externalities are those that would be b eneficial to the society. This shows that the present accounting standard does not have sufficient regulation that modifys the firms to relate to the sustainable development aspect.For a company to achieve sustainable development, one should balance the economic, social and environmental impacts in their decision-making. This includes the analysis of the positive and negative impacts of the three dimensions on policy changes, and identifying the outcomes which would benefit one party and harm the other parties as well as the proper precaution steps to minimize negative impact (Bebbington, 2000). The analysis on past principles focuses more on economic impact (Kirkpatrick, George, and Curran, 2001). Rio Principle 4 states that it is essential for environmental aspect to be integrated as part of the development process while Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) principle 3 recognized the importance of integrating the 3 dimension policy and purpose (Janeiro, 1 992).Overall, the current accounting standards are inadequate in maintaining a companys sustainable development. Therefore, many efforts have been done to integrate the economic, social and environment policy. For instance, Global Reporting Initiative, the United Nations Principles for Responsible Investment, Global Initiative for Sustainable Rating and others have been created. This shows that our current standards are not capable to ensure companies, such as GAR, to commit to sustainability development. Hence, Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB) is launched to create sustainable accounting standards for the users (Deloitte, 2012). This will include the disclosures of sustainability issues which enable investors and public to have a better decision making. The SASB developed a Sustainable Industry Classification System (SICS) to create a sustainable accounting standards that suits different industry (Deloitte, 2012).As a conclusion, apart from profit maximization, orga nizations play a major role in the community. Organizations should also disclose social and environmental factors in their financial reports. Thus, GAR is held accountable to the Indonesian forests and peats as well as all the stakeholders. They should maintain environmental disclosure in their financial reporting for all stakeholders. However, besides GAR, the regulators and professional bodies also play a big role in ensuring organizations to be more committed to sustainable development. This can be done by creating adequate sustainable accounting standards for the organizations.

Comparative Criminal Justice: United states and China

Comparative roughshod Justice United states and ChinaCompare and contrast twain different types of culpable justness arrangings.The twain criminal justice placements that shall be discussed in this paper are those of the United States and that of the Peoples Republic of China. When comparing and contrasting these two systems one should sugar with the premises that both are instituted in their reciprocal countries in the attempt to curb the proliferation of crime, offenders and deter potential offenders. Both the U.S. and Chinas criminal justice systems make practice of a court system, police enforcement organizations and detention and correctional facilities on a regional biases. However this is as much as similarities go as the two systems are radically different since they are based on ideologically opposing government structures.The U.S government is based on a free mart capitalist economy supported by a representative democracy. On the other hand that of China is foun ded on a social communist ideology. As for demographic figures, the U.S. has roughly 355 million citizens while China has over one billion, which makes up one fourth of the world population. Klaus Mhlhahn (2009), in his book cruel Justice in China, states that Peoples Republic of China (P.R.C.) was established as a socialist country in 1949. From that point onwards efforts take a leak been make to reenact basic laws concerning criminal justice administration and enforced nationwide.The U.S. government is hierarchally based on a unified organization where power is shared between the federal and state governments. Therefore this means that the political system secures autonomy of each state in the U.S. but at the same time adopting a modify government (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The U.S. justice system is derived from the British common law tradition. Common law is the law that is agreed upon by the common people and exists in two forms, Lex Scripta (written law) and Lex non Scrip ta (unwritten law).On the other hand Mhlhahn (2009), says that the Chinese justice system is quite difficult to put under one unitary system. This is due to the event that the Chinese criminal justice system was repeatedly re organize in the wake of political changes and internal party disputes. Mhlhahn (2009) in addition notes that the Chinese justice system under socialism is not an independent administrative system but was integrated into a network of social control and political mobilization. The Chinese Criminal Law is based on the ideological precepts of Marxism, Leninism and Mao Zedong. Its capers are to use punishments to resist against all revolutionary or criminal acts in collection to safeguard the system of the peoples democratic dictatorship.The police forces of the United States are the successors of Militias originally instituted in the early colonies to protect the population and control the Native Americans. The different forming States genuine their own securi ty forces and these operated autonomously. Major cities instituted their own police forces, which functioned under the control of a city government (Gaines and Miller, 2006).Currently the U.S. police forces are structured on local/city/county and federal/state levels, thus having a federal system. All local policing duties are shared between local municipalities and counties. Cities, towns and villages have the force to institute their own police forces, while others, usually untaught localities, rely on a county Sheriffs department for the task of enforcement and policing. Usually the size of police forces in the U.S. is directly proportional to the population of the area being controlled. The 50 States forming the U.S. similarly have their own police forces that are ascribed to different regions and often patrolling undeveloped rural areas. The job of such agencies include investigating crimes against the state such as alcohol licensing violations or welfare fraud, fish and gam e violations, and highway traffic infractions (Gaines and Miller, 2006). harmonise to a statistic of the U.S. Department of Justice (2008), on average the ratio of police to population in the U.S. is about 2.3 officers per thousand residents, however larger cities have high ratios. That force ratio has remained steady for nearly three decades at around 2.21-2.34 police officers per 1000 civilian population.Next up on the U.S. hierarchal police system is the Federal Governments police force that subdivided into various other agencies. There is the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which is independent of any administration. The F.B.I. intervenes when federal laws are infringed, an interstate crime is committed, or if national security is threatened. However the last case scenario has been taken over by the Department of Homeland Security established after the attacks of family line 11th 2001. The U.S. has about 20 federal law enforcement agencies, which also include the Internal Rev enue attend Criminal Investigation, U.S. Secret Service, Postal Inspection Service and U.S. Marshals Service. Further more there exist the Drug Enforcement Agency, the Treasury Department, the Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearm Agency and the U.S. Customs formaliseds that deal with border violations while the Immigration and naturalization Services deal with illegal immigrants. However this specialization of the different policing agencies has its drawbacks. Problems can arise due to jurisdictional issues, when what one should really take care of is the upholding and attention of the law (Gaines and Miller, 2006).The P.R.C. employs around 2 million police officers, of which most work is small offices that serve communities of roughly 10,000 citizens. The main policing agency in the P.R.C. is the Peoples Armed police (PAP), which includes about 700,000 officers. This agency was instituted in 1983 and was formed by incorporating disbanded units of the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) on d omestic defense reaction duty and armed frontier defence and hassle fighting. The rise of the PAP shows how Chinese leadership in many ways is more concerned about domestic security than foreign threats (Mhlhahn, 2009). The PAPs main task is to deal with domestic disturbances, by acting as riot police, guarding government compounds and also foreign embassies. It usually handles border defence but is called in sometimes to back up local police. Recently it has been employed to suppress anti-government protest. The Public Security Service (PSB) is both a local police and the Chinese analogous of the CIA in the U.S. The P.R.C. justice system also employs paramilitary armed police and more than 1 million security guards. Quasi-police force known as cheng guan also operates in China. These carry out tasks deemed unpopular by the citizens, such as collecting fines and tax money, often these are just thugs hired by the official police. In December 2008, the Chinese government announced the creation of a new special unit aimed at cracking down on gun-related crimes and organized crime such as organized prostitution, gambling, drug production and trafficking. The public security budget was raised by nearly a third in 2009 to $4.2 billion in part to address concerns about un tarry in Tibet and western China and trouble brought about by unemployed workers and other problems associated with the frugal crisis in 2008 and 2009In the past, police agencies in the US have been accused of corruption and the Good-Old Boy network of hiring practices. Recently, charges of racism, racial profiling, and use of excessive force have been made by concerned citizens and organizations.Family members of crime victims often become infuriated with police for their incompetence and unwillingness to make an effort to solve crimes that affect them. Chinese police have a reputation for being corrupt and connected to smuggling. They are regarded with suspicion by ordinary Chinese, particular ly in rural areas. law have traditionally been more involved in maintaining government control than solving crimes.As for the US court system, this is a dual judiciary system, of which the two constituent parts (federal and state) function independent of each other. The federal judiciary system includes district courts, circuit courts of appeals, and the United Stated Supreme Court. The state system includes trial courts at the local and state levels, intermediate courts of appeal, and state Supreme Court (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The primary agents working along each other are the judge, prosecutor, and defence attorneys in the U.S. system.As already stated the U.S. follows the principles of Common law, that were inherited from English jurisprudence. This tradition holds that a decision taken in court is always made on the basis of the Rule of Precedent. This means that each case previously resolved serves as reference and guide for new cases. New aspects of law whitethorn be det ermined or discovered and thus a precedent arises. The U.S. justice system allows for presumption of innocence until proven guilty, plea-bargaining, trial by jury, and the proper(a) to a speedy trial (Gaines and Miller, 2006). Such aspects make the justice system in the U.S. more flexible and makes it easier to meet citizens the needs.The penal system of the U.S., like the juridical system, branches into federal, state and local levels. The prison system is supported by governmental funds, in the form of tax revenue from federal (corporate income), state (sales) and local (taxes) revenues. Is also receives funding through Inter-governmental transfer, in the form of federal grants and state grants. Sentences in the US justice system tend to be significantly longer than in China and many states have adopted the three strikes law which forces judges to sentence a defendant to life imprisonment for their third felony offense. The penal system in the US is facing major problems due to overcrowding, gang and drug activity within the prisons, the imprisonment of mentally ill unmarrieds, increase of sex offenders, and super violent offenders. Privatization of the prison systems is being adopted in many regions of the country as prisons are becoming more and more overcrowded.Juvenile offenses and crimes in the US vary in each state and all are dependent on the age of the defendant. For example, in New York State, a juvenile status is considered if the individual is more than 7 but less than 16 year old, unless it is murder then the individual can be 13 or if charged with sack then the defendant can be as young as 14. Contrary to the French system, the tendency in New York and possibly in the rest of the US is to treat the offender as an adult and increase the levels of punishment including incarceration.Gaines, Larry K. and Roger Le Roy Miller, Criminal Justice in Action (2006).http//www.project.org/info.php?recordID=33http//www.lectlaw.com/files/int10.htmKlaus Mh lhahn, Criminal Justice in China A History, Harvard University Press (2009)

The American Constitution Essay -- United States Constitution

The American spirit The basis of all law in the United States is the shaping. This Constitution is a document written byoutcasts of England. The Constitution of the United States sets forth the nations fundamental laws. Itestablishes the form of the national government and defines the rights and liberties of the Americanpeople. It also lists the aims of the government and the methods of achieving them. The Constitution was written to organize a strong national government for the American submits.Previously, the nations leaders had established a national government under the Articles ofConfederation. But the Articles grant independence to each state. They lacked the authority to makethe states work together to solve national problems. After the states won independence in the Revolutionary War (1775-1783), they go about the problems ofpeacetime government. The states had to enforce law and order, collect taxes, pay a large public debt,and regulate trade among themselves. They also had to deal with Indian tribes and negotiate with othergovernments. track statesmen, such as George Washington and Alexander Hamilton, began todiscuss the creation of a strong national government under a new constitution.The United States is a republic that operates under a federalist system. The national government hadspecific enumerated powers, and the fifty states retain substantial endowment over their citizens and theirresidents. Both the national government and the state government are divided into three differentbranches, executive, legislative, and judicial. Written constitutions, both federal and state, form a systemof separated powers. Amendment, in legislation, is a stir in a law, or in a bill before it becomes a law. Bills often haveamendments attached before a legislature votes on them. Amendments to the Constitution of the United States whitethorn be proposed in two ways (1) If two-thirds of both houses approve, Congress may propose an amendment. The amendmentbecom es a law when canonic either by legislatures or by conventions in three-fourths of the states. (2) If the legislatures of two-thirds of the states ask for an amendment, Congress must call a conventionto propose it. The amendment becomes a law when ratified either by the legisl... ... juries in some statesmay have as few as 6 members. The jury or judge hears the evidence for and against the suspect andthen reaches a verdict. If the individual is found guilty, the judge pronounces sentence. If the defendant isfound not guilty, he or she is released. In most cases, the judge determines the sentence for a defendant convicted of a crime. The judgeimposes punishment that he or she feels will best serve both the offender and society. Laws may providea upper limit and a minimum sentence according to the crime involved. In some cases, therecommendation of the jury determines the sentence that may be given to the offender. The judge may put a convicted offender on probation to protect the individual from the harmful effects ofbeing imprisoned with experienced criminals. A lawbreaker who is on probation system free but mustfollow certain rules. A probation officer assigned by the court supervises the individuals conduct. Aprobationer who violates any of the rules of his or her probation may be sent to prison. Some judgesrequire offenders to repay their victims, either with money or by working for them without pay.